Questions 11-16

11) 1968 was a turning point in both Civil Rights and national politics. The assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. caused a major setback in civil rights and stirred massive public outcry in the black community. Riots broke out, sit-in demonstrations rose, and protests were rife throughout the country as people were outraged. However, it didn’t lose pace as it continued to progress and make advancements. The movement spread to other parts of the country as well, such as the urban north. The movement achieved integration with the ruling of the Swann c. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education. In this case, busing programs were changed to promote integration within schools. Kids from different towns would be bused to schools, thus making the schools more racially balanced. Americans were also growing frustrated over Vietnam. Johnson had promised that the war would be resolved in six months, however it continued longer. The Tet Offensive also destroyed hopes in millions of Americans. After the North Koreans launched the Tet Offensive, they succeeded in capturing some of the US posts. This appeared alarming to the American public, as the general understanding was that America was winning the war. Now that it appeared that America was not going to win the war, people became anti-war. 12) The Vietnam War affected many aspects of America. Nixon’s involvement in the Watergate scandal also hurt the reputation and dignity of the Presidency. The taping system in the White House reveals his involvement and his refusal to turn over the tapes further sparks controversy. The Presidency was looked upon with contempt during this period. People were shocked when the Pentagon Papers were published. The Papers revealed the dishonesty within the Presidency and its administration. The power of the Presidency is also limited with the passage of the War Powers Act, which cut down on the President’s ability to commit troops. This represents a major setback for the Presidency because in the previous era, the President was very powerful (FDR, Truman). Also, each successive President during this era took over a country that was in a worse state than the start of the previous Presidency. Johnson’s failure to meet his promise to end the Vietnam War in six months also made the people uneasy and even more negative towards the Presidency. Cold War diplomacy was also affected by the Vietnam War. The US had to handle the situation in Vietnam very carefully now, as it would affect the nation’s pride and credibility in handling international affair and combating communism. Nixon also issued the Nixon Doctrine, which announced that nation’s had to take responsibility in defending their own areas of the globe. Cold War diplomacy also shifted as Johnson took up a policy of détente, which lessened the tensions between the US and communist nations. Nixon would also take up this policy, as he visited China and the USSR. Despite these acts of kind diplomacy, Nixon affected Cold war diplomacy again by issuing bombing runs on North Vietnam by B-52 bombers. 13) The US’s foreign policy of containment affected many regions of the world and experienced both success and failure. In East and Southeast Asia, containment of communism experienced mixed success. Containment failed at the loss of China to the hands of the Communist revolutionists led by Mao Zedong. However, the US continued to voice support for the government in Taiwan, refusing t at first to recognize the government in Beijing as the legitimate government of China. The Korean War showed the success of containment in Asia. Communist North Korea, in an attempt to unify Korea, invaded democratic South Korea. The North Koreans managed to push through most of South Korea until the US intervened and not only contained the Koreans at the original border but also managed to push them back almost to the Chinese border. Although the intervention of China pushed back the battlefront of the war, the ending result was that the border was established at the 38th parallel, thus containing communism in North Korea. Containment was also used in Vietnam, as US forces intervened to try to keep the communist North Vietnamese from intervening. Containment of communism in the region was justified by the Domino theory. However, that failed as the popular opposition to the war forced the US out and the North Vietnamese ended up conquering and unifying all of Vietnam. The policy of containment experienced a new strategy and success when Nixon initiated his policy of détente. His diplomatic missions to China and Russia eased tensions and helped form the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with Russia. Containment was also experienced partial success in Latin America. To promote containment and peace in the region, the US instigated the formation of the Organization of American States. The US also managed to overthrow the communist influence military dictatorship in Guatemala, with the help of the CIA. An anti-communist military dictatorship ended up taking power. The biggest failure for containment came in Cuba. In Cuba, Fidel Castro ended up taking power and establishing a communist rule on the country. Following the containment policy, the US tried to eliminate Castro. The US invaded but failed, and the incident was known as the Bay of Pigs fiasco. The failure of the mission’s consequences brought terror to the US, as Russia sent over missiles to Cuba in the Cuban Missile Crisis to help protect Cuba. T 14) In 1820 to 1860, many people from north and Western Europe migrated to the US. They were drawn to the US by economic prosperity, freedom, and in the case of Ireland, a potato famine. The Irish did not integrate well into American society, as they were Catholics and Americans were Protestants. Unfortunately, the Irish worked in factories and sometimes, without knowing, were strikebreakers. This caused further contempt towards them by the Americans. Germans had a better time integrating as they shared the same religious views as Americans. The responses by the American people towards the immigrants were nativist. The formation of the Know-Nothing Party accurately represents sentiments towards immigrants as the Know-Nothings were very nativist and supported anti-immigration. From 1880 to 1924, immigrants began pouring in from other parts of Europe, such as eastern and southern Europe. Immigrants also began coming in large numbers from Asia. These immigrants were driven by similar motivations as the immigrants from 1820 to 1860. Also, they were similar in the fact that they also were targeted by Nativist groups. However, differences between the immigration trends of the two periods lies in the fact that for the group between 1880 and 1924, there were many groups that formed to help them assimilate. Immigrants were generally poor so there were many groups that provided services for them. Urban reform helped to improve the living conditions in which the immigrants lived in. Asians faced discrimination on the west coast, as the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed to keep Chinese immigrants out. Japanese also faced negative sentiments and were subject to long and arduous examinations of health. Mexicans also began immigrating to the US in large numbers. Like most other ethnic groups, they faced discrimination and could find only low-paying jobs. In both time periods, immigrants were always met with prejudice. The National Origins Act of 1924 restricted immigration to 150,000 people a year total across all countries. No legislation was ever passed from 1820 to 1860 that restricted immigration rates. 15) The new women’s movement set out to accomplish different goals than the previous one. The previous women’s movement had successfully fought for gender equality for things such as voting rights, property rights, and marital rights. The new women’s movement focused more on reproductive rights and equality in the workplace. The introduction of the birth pill helped give women greater control over their reproductive status. Many groups sprang up during this movement. There was the National Organization for Women that had similar views with the Democratic Party, groups formed based on ethnicity, for example, African American women formed organizations that focused on cultural and ethnic identity, and there were lesbian groups forming. Women made “consciousness-raising” sessions to discuss issues and share viewpoints on situations. These sessions promoted to the ideas of political power and personal power being hand in hand. They also focused on making the job market more equal. The women’s workplace always had “glass ceilings” that inhibited their advancement on the corporate ladder. Child care expenses also came down on women unequally. Another big issue to resolve was sexual harassment. Women were being harassed at the workplace and elsewhere by males. Thus, the Supreme Court ruled that sexual harassment was outlawed in the Civil Rights Act. This proved a major victory for women at the time. 16) The New Right was a conservatism group that formed in the mid 1970s. The group consisted of many kinds of people: those who supported anticommunism, anti-domestic spending, and many social/cultural issues such as the Equal Rights Amendment. Neoconservatists also joined as they sought to reinvigorate an anticommunist foreign policy in America. The New Right’s Agenda consisted of many aspects. On the political side of things, the New Right focused on lobbying in Congress and backing Conservative politicians. The New Right was very conservative and traditional in its social and cultural agendas. Conservatists upheld family values and denounced the degrading lifestyles brought on by the feminists and homosexuals. They said that homosexuality was not about personal freedom, but a “question of morality”. In the education system, the New Right opposed the fact that schools were teaching evolution, feminism, and multiculturalism because they said that these facts were being forced upon students, even though the contradicted their religious and cultural ideals. The New Right also expressed disapproval over the ideas of being politically correct in order to keep from insulting the various cultures in America, and instead, advocated traditional cultural values.

1945-1990 Assignments: Questions 5-10

Questions 5-10 5) The goals of black reform movements in 1890-1910 were contrasting. One viewpoint, held by Booker T. Washington, believed that individual achievement would garner respect from whites. He also believed that blacks should accept the fact that they are segregated and focus energy on self-improvement. However, people like W.E.B. Du Bois rejected the idea, noting that whites continued to be unwilling to accept blacks, no matter their success. Thus, Du Bois and others formed the NAACP and sought to bring back the right to vote in states that it had been taken away, to abolish segregation, and to end discrimination. They looked to bring political and social equality to all blacks. The goals of black reform movements between 1950 and 1970 were much the same. The discrimination was especially hard in the south, where people refused to accept the laws set forth by Brown v. Board of Education in Topeka and other lawsuits. The strategies used by reformers consisted of boycotts and peaceful protest. For example, the Montgomery bus boycott due to Rosa Parks’s arrest led to the Montgomery bus system losing lots of money, thus ending segregation on buses. The ultimate goal of the civil rights movement was to bring, as Martin Luther King, Jr. stated, “redemption and reconciliation” to America society. 6) While King was trying hard to integrate blacks into society, others worked hard to separate blacks and identify not with America, but with Africa. Starting from Marcus Garvey’s call back to Africa movement after WWI, many blacks were now encouraged to stop fighting for equality and instead “plant the banner of freedom on the great continent of Africa.” This contradicted King’s ideas of integrating into American society through peaceful protest. Violence and taking up of arms was instigated even further by white violence to blacks, such as the publicized event that took place in Philadelphia, Mississippi; here, three civil rights workers were kidnapped, beaten, and killed. Another group that vocalized separation and Black Nationalism was the Black Panther Party. The party took up arms and declared that “black men must unite to overthrow their white ‘oppressors’…” There was also Malcolm X, who even condemned Martin Luther King, Jr. and said that the main crime here committed by whites was that they made blacks hate themselves. Thus, black studies programs in universities sprang up and taught blacks to appreciate their heritage and culture. 7) The Reconstruction failed to make blacks completely welcome to the post-Civil War America. After Reconstruction, the Black Codes and Jim Crow Laws were implemented, segregation was rife as Plessy v. Ferguson made segregation in states legal, violence was everywhere as the Ku Klux Klan and others terrorized blacks, and opportunities such as education were limited to blacks. The Civil Rights Movement helped address many of these Reconstruction failures. For example, in Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court ruled that it was now illegal to have segregation in educational facilities. This was important as it paved the way for future desegregation and integration actions, and trumped both Plessy v. Ferguson and the Jim Crow Laws. It also made education equal among whites and blacks in the US. Desegregation also occurred after many boycotts and peaceful protests. The Montgomery Bus Boycott initiated after the incident with Rosa Parks, helped gain blacks the right to sit anywhere they wanted on the bus. Civil Rights leaders such as Martin Luther King, Jr. helped provide a voice to blacks all around and inspired them to stand up for their rights and true equality. All of this led to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited discrimination and segregation to blacks and women. It also ended the unfair practice of giving blacks extra voting requirements, which transcended the Reconstruction failure of giving poll taxes and grandfather clauses to black voters. Although violence against blacks and civil rights activists was still occurring, it did shrink significantly after the government began using federal troops to protect blacks. 8) Inspired by FDR, Lyndon B. Johnson set out to improve America. Although most America was living comfortably at the time, Johnson wanted to make America even grander. He sought to help out not only the poor, but to provide legislation that would help all social classes. Johnson brought about the department of Housing and Urban Affairs, which was similar to FDR’s Civil Works Administration and Works Progress Administration in that it helped revamp many of the nation’s building and infrastructures. Johnson also sought out to eradicate poverty. He implemented the Manpower Development and Training Act and the Economic Opportunity Act to help train poor people for new and better jobs. This is similar to FDR’s CWA and WPA because it decreased unemployment, made new jobs, and helped gave people more opportunities. Like the Fair Labor Standards Act of FDR’s New Deal, the Great Society also raised minimum wage under Johnson. Johnson was also a heavy advocate of conservation, bringing about heavy restrictions on water and air pollution and added more acres to wildlife refuges. This is similar to FDR’s Civilian Conservation Corps and other federal projects to support conservation. Johnson also enacted Medicare, which provided the elderly with needed medical care and medical insurance. This is similar to the Social Security Act of the New Deal, as it also provided insurance to the elderly. 9) In an era of Communist threat, Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson continued Truman’s policy of containment. Eisenhower supported containment and also announced his own “domino theory”, which stated that if one country were fall to communism, the neighbors of that country will to, and so on. Thus, it was crucial to contain communism and prevent it from spreading. Ike launched a series of surveillance planes into Russia to spy on Russian activity. He also held down the arms race during the 50s with an “unspoken” agreement between him and Soviet premier Krushchev. Regarding communist China and Taiwan, Ike was able to boast America’s nuclear and military strength to keep China from invading Taiwan, thus containing communism. Kennedy was also a supporter of containment. Also in Vietnam, Ike heavily supported the South Vietnam government, giving them economic and military aid to fight against the communist North Vietnamese. He delivered the Kennedy Doctrine, which advocated the containment and eventual eradication of communism in the Western Hemisphere. To support his doctrine, Kennedy started up the Alliance of Progress, which gave billions of dollars in aid to Latin American countries on the verge of revolution. Kennedy also aimed end communism in Cuba, thus resulting in the Bay of Pigs fiasco. However, it was an effort to contain and reverse communism in the western hemisphere. Another area where Kennedy tried to contain communism was Southeast Asia. Here, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand were all under communist threat. In Laos, Kennedy contained communism through negotiations, which resulted in a neutral Laos. Like Ike, Kennedy supported Vietnam through aid packages at first. But realizing that aid packages were not enough, US troops were inserted to help fight the communist threat. Johnson continued Kennedy’s policies of containment in Vietnam. He sent additional troops to Vietnam and increased aid. Thus, Johnson waged war in Vietnam to contain the spreading of communism to South Vietnam. 10) The Civil Rights Movement and the Woman’s Movement transformed American society in many ways. With Martin Luther King, Jr. leading peaceful protests, blacks boycotting goods and services, and women advocating their rights, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This changed American society as segregation and discrimination were now illegal. Universities and colleges in America also began to change. During the Civil Rights Movement, Malcolm X stated that the biggest “crime the white man has committed has been to teach us(African-Americans) to hate ourselves.” Thus, educational facilities around the country began implementing black studies programs so blacks could learn to appreciate and celebrate their culture. Similarly, women studies and feminism studies have also been added to universities to bring to light women’s rights and discrimination against women. Women’s advocating of social reforms such as equal pay, birth control, and abortion rights also changed American society.

1945-1990 Assignments: Questions #1-4

1) At the close of each World War, America entered an era in which its foreign policy would shift. The similarities and differences in these shifts are the reason as to why our foreign policy is the way it is today.
Some similarities to the foreign policies after both world wars lied in economics. The economic influence exerted by the US on different countries helped protect US interests on foreign soil. For example, after WWI, America continued its military intervention in Latin America. Investors doubled their investments and continued to intervene in internal affairs to protect US interests. Although military use was initially cut back, it was would reinstated in other Latin America countries. For example, in Haiti, the military was used to keep US-friendly governments in power. This is similar to the division and occupation of Germany by the allied powers after WWII. In order to make sure Germany didn’t fall into the hands of Communist Russia, the US and its allies occupied West Germany and west Berlin with their armed forces. They even conducted the Berlin Airlift, which delivered 2 million tons of supplies to West Berlin, which had been blockaded by Russia. The Dawes Plan was also another example of US economic intervention post-WWI. The plan called for a reduction of German reparations and a $200 million stimulus in loans to the German economy. Similar to the Dawes Plan, the Marshall Plan of post WWII called for a $13 billion stimulus to not just Germany, but to seventeen different European countries. This was done so that the democratic governments in power could rebuild the country, thus instilling trust within the people for democracy. Even though the US invested into Germany after WWI, it would mark an end of their foreign intervention for the rest of the 20s. Thus, here marks a difference between the foreign policies of post-WWI and post-WWII.
After WWI, America was growing impatient with foreign intervention. For example, America did not end up joining the League of Nations, and remained isolationist instead. They also increased the tariff rate through the Fordney-McCumber Tariff, which made is extremely difficult for foreign nations to export into the US. However, after WWII, the US began to view itself as a world power. They realized that they needed to advocate and spread democracy and freedom around the world, or else communism would strike, which would go against their interests because the US is a democratic nation. Thus, many international peace organizations were formed, such as the United Nations (UN) and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). With the joining of these two international bodies, the US effectively ended its foreign policy of isolationism and began a new era of US interventionist foreign policy. The Truman Doctrine only further exemplified America’s shift in foreign policy. The Truman Doctrine stated that the US would go on a “containment” campaign to stop communism from spreading elsewhere in the world.
The foreign policy of the US after WWII made US into a global presence; this view still carries on today. Thus, the major difference between US foreign policy after WWI and WWII is that the US went from isolationist to interventionist. However, there were similarities, for example in how the US intervened economically with other countries.

2) McCarthyism was an “anti-communist witch hunt” that swept across America in the early to mid 1950s. Led by Senator Joseph McCarthy, the accusations were targeted against politicians, people of the entertainment industry, authors, and even Army officers. One reason for its flourishing is the fact that leaders of the Republican Party realized that his outrageous accusations could be of good use. McCarthy’s claims could be used to strengthen their claims about the fact that Truman’s administration had lost China to the Communist revolutionaries. McCarthyism was appealing because of the paranoia within American society. After both Russia and China succumbed to Communism, and while in the midst of the Cold War, Americans were overly apprehensive about the Communist issue. They feared that communism was going to strike within the country, but they didn’t know where. Thus, McCarthyism provided a scapegoat for Americans because it found alleged communists to target. People hopped on board because their need to find communists was taken care of McCarthy’s blacklists.

3) In the 50s and 60s, American pride was in full swing. They had recovered from a war, and prosperity was rife throughout the country. The communist fears also began to subside as Stalin was no longer in power. One theme of this affluence was the economic growth that Americans experienced during this period. Consumer goods were plentiful, and consumers themselves were earning much more money. This growth in consumer income helped speed the development of suburbs, where middle class families could live and commute back and froth to their jobs in the cities. A leap in middle class profits also allowed more Americans to popular goods such as cars, radios, televisions, and fashion materials. Another theme of America’s affluence lied within the government. The government, while quite affluent, maintained a steady and tightly controlled budget under President Eisenhower. They reduced military expenditures and kept a balanced federal budget. But that is not to say that Ike didn’t improve America domestically. Ike sponsored what was known as the “largest public works project in the history of the world.” The Highway Act of 1956 created a network of expressways all across America. Although the basis of such support was military purposes (military supplies could travel faster along highways), it had a much greater impact. It encouraged the buying of cars as the new way of travel and allowed citizens more freedom and ease to travel across the nation. Labor and management accord also contributed to the affluence in America. Ever since labor unions formed, there has always been constant bickering between them and company managements. However, in the 50s and 60s, management began to lean how to live with labor unions. It was led by the auto industry, in which labor leaders and company management negotiated a mutual contract. Affluence also touched upon the political atmosphere in America. Sociologist C. Wright Mills had a theory of that America’s policy and decision making was controlled by a small “power elite” of corporate leaders. The theory is similar to the modern theory of corporations sponsoring lobbyists to tell politicians to support certain bills. Although regarded as conspiracy theories, Mills claimed that the “power elite” were now kept in check by the labor unions, consumer lobbies, farm organizations, and others. This led to his idea of “pluralism” or basically the fact that no one group could control the political process. Pluralists believed that affluence mediated the disputes between different interest groups in politics, to reach a general agreement. This belief stems from the fact that affluence was thought to guarantee that all interests would end up “better off than before”. Another theme of affluence in the 50s was religion. Inspired to counter the atheistic communists, the government encouraged people to be more religious. Religion became associated with “health, happiness, and goodness”. Religion itself also became pluralistic, as religion no longer divided people. However, discontent was also felt. Critics argued that the new era ushered in conformity and not individuality. Employees placed the goals of their employers higher than their own. Sociologist David Riesman also began to explain a shift in identity with oneself; it used to be that identity with oneself was sought through family members, but now identity was sought through others and how they perceived you. With growing affluence, the youth also began changing there views on society. Society began to become less conservative, and the raciness of the adult world fell upon the youth. The youth were exposed to sex and violence. They also had all of their troubles voiced through the lyrics of rock and roll, most notably Elvis Presley.

4) America was in the peak of its boom, it experienced increases in wealth and overall happiness. Things were finally “normal” or at least more normal than they have been in the past two decades. Politically, people were still paranoid about communists. Bomb shelters were built and people everywhere feared communist take-over or bombings. Culturally, America began to conform to less traditional ways. For example, the youth of America began to listen to rock and roll stars, such as Elvis. Everyone also began having babies, which caused a baby boom in the US. Fashion also swept America. Trends swooped America, as girls wore tight sweaters, poodle skirts, and such, and boys wore jeans and a white t-shirt. Businessmen also conformed to the standard of wearing suits. Socially, Americans became generally wealthier, and some people began to move into the suburbs. Soon, a large number of America’s middle class began to migrate into the suburbs, conforming to places other than the city. People also became more receptive to change. Women wanted to increase their social status, as they were unhappy as “homemakers”. Blacks protested increasingly against stereotypes and discrimination towards them. People were also discontent about the concept of sexuality in society, and thus Playboy magazine and birth-control pills were introduced.

APUSH weekend hw assignment 4/2/12

Option I. Situation Analysis
1) After reading the following documents on Pearl Harbor respond in writing to the following: Why were the defenders at Pearl Harbor caught by surprise? Who deserves the most blame for the errors? (Refer to evidence from specific documents!)


2) Isolationists and hostile critics in 1940–1941, and even after World War II, charged Franklin Roosevelt with deliberately and sometimes deceitfully manipulating events and public opinion so as to lead the United States into war. What factual basis, if any, is there for such a charge? Which of Roosevelt’s words and actions tend to refute it? (Refer to specific documents and events!!

1) In “United States Not to Japan November 26, 1941, the US seemed eager to establish good relations with Japan. However, in Japanese not to the United States December 7, 1941, the Japanese made it clear that “in the view of the attitude of the American Government it (Japan’s government) cannot but consider that it is impossible to reach an agreement through further negotiations. What surprised the defenders of the Pearl Harbor was that the attack happened the day the Japanese note was sent. Although the defenders were on the look out for an attack, they didn’t expect it that quickly. For example, General Marshall in “From: Gen Marshall To:alcon Date: 7 Dec.1941” issued a warning to all his troops about the Japanese ultimatum, but he didn’t sound extremely urgent because he didn’t suspect an attack that quick. I believe that the most immediate person to blame is. I believe that the General Marshall is the most immediate person to blame. The Director of Naval Intelligence notified him on December 1 that there seemed to be a massive Japanese force making its way along the islands in the Pacific. Yet, it was not until he received the Japanese note did he formally command his troops to be on full alert. Given the large Japanese fleet already deployed, General Marshall should’ve issued a warning to all troops, especially those on Pearl Harbor, on the day he received the message from the Director of Naval Intelligence.
2) The fact that America was given decently sufficient warning about a possible attack on the US before Pearl Harbor actually happened bolsters the claim that the US knew of the attack and let it happen, or else it would’ve required all troops to assemble themselves for a possible attack. Also, in “From: War Department, Washington to: Army Hq. Hawaii Date: 27 Nov. 1941”, the War Department clearly states its “desires that Japan commit the first overt act.” Although it follows up with a statement saying that “This policy should not, repeat not, be construed as restricting you to a course of action that might jeopardize your defense”, the fact of the matter is that the Pearl Harbor defense forced should have been forced to take more serious protocol. Also, in “II. Message from the President to the Emperor of Japan December 6”, FDR criticizes Japan for its military actions in Japan. On top of that, he also forced an embargo on the Japan, as did Britain. Japan took this as a huge insult in their responding letter and subsequently ended negotiations with the US. Yet, Roosevelt did try to present his ideas in a diplomatic manner. Also, the two countries did make an agreement on November 26, 1941, which outlined that the two countries would be peaceful to one another. The fact that Japan kept on instigating quarrels with its nearby nations prompted FDR to be more assertive in his letter. Thus, these actions seem to refute the claim.